Buddhism, Migration and Pluralism: The Basics

 

Buddhism, Migration & Pluralisation

·        Multiculturalism is where societies are made up of many different cultures, which include different nationalities, beliefs, values and social customs. They should be equally respected and seen as valuable. Religious pluralism is just like this but refers to the co-existence of various religions. Migration is the idea of people moving from one country to the next. A secular state is a country where the government, legislature and society are not controlled by or dependent on the teachings of a religion.

·        Religious tolerance has two meanings: one definition is that all religions should be accepted as equally valid and true, meanwhile the other definition suggests that, though one might not agree with someone else's religious beliefs, one must avoid oppressing or discriminating the other person's religious beliefs.

·        Laws that support the freedom of religion include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18 and the Equality Act 2010. Article 18 explicitly states that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (this is part of European Law); this means that Buddhists are free to practice their religion, either publicly (in community with others) or privately. The Equality Act 2010 states that it is against the law to prohibit or restrict the practice of religion in Britain. The law protects people in the workplace; anti-religion is a hate crime. Thus, Buddhists are protected because discrimination against religious groups is a criminal act.

·        Migration has contributed to the creation of pluralised Britain through several instances, primarily in the second half of the C20th. Following WW2, Eastern Europeans migrated. As a result of labour shortages in Britain, the 1950s government encouraged immigration from Caribbean communities and Hong Kong. The Indian Independence of 1947 peaked in 1972 when Idi Amin expelled Indians and Pakistanis from Uganda. Buddhist communities also migrated during the Chinese invasion of Tibet (1950): this eventually led to the exodus of Tibetans with the Dalai Lama in 1959. This brought immigration to the West.

·        Migration can also explain the creation of Buddhist communities in Britain: many Buddhists settled in Western communities. Manchester's Chinatown began in C20th as a home for laundry workers who emigrated from China after the invasion of Tibet.

·        Other reasons why Buddhist communities have developed in Britain: the academic interest of the C19th whereby Buddhist scriptures began to be translated to English and circulated amongst academics/the upper classes; in 1879, Sir Edwin Arnold published “The Light of Asia”, a poem about the Buddha's life which sparked interest in Buddhism; in 1898, Allan Bennet travelled to Sri Lanka to be ordained as the first British Theravada Monk, and returned to England to practice his religion; and in 1907, the Buddhist society of Great Britain & Ireland was formed, becoming the London Buddhist society in 1924 – it is a platform for all to come together.

·        There is diversity of Buddhist traditions in Britain. The Amaravati Buddhist Monastery, (Herts) was founded in 1979 by Ajahn Sumedho, an American-born Theravada monk of the Thai Forest Tradition. Housing both monks and nuns, it has a retreat center for laypeople, a library, and is open to visitors for occasional talks. The Jamyang Buddhist Centre (London) is a Tibetan organisation of the Gelupga tradition, under the direction of Geshe Tashi Tsering. Courses of study and practice are taught at all levels. Lastly, the Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey (Northumberland) is a training monastery of the Japanese Soto Zen tradition, founded in 1972 by an Englishwoman, the late Rev. Jiyu-Kennett, and now under the direction of Rev. Daishin Morgan.

·        These three Buddhist centers show that there is diversity within British Buddhism because these centers are ecumenical and generally inclusive. Multiculturalism may be helpful to the development of Buddhism in Britain because of the role of popularity, leading to a pluralised society where there are more followers and a greater understanding of other traditions.

 

Buddhism is a collection of traditions with little in common
For	Against
·        They both have varied views - Theravada is a lineage whilst Mahayana is a movement. ·        The key doctrinal text of Theravadas is the Pali Canon, written in Pali. Meanwhile, Mahayanas accept sutras; these texts were written in Sanskrit. ·        Theravadas solely worship the Buddha and focuses on the arhat goal, whereas Mahayanas focus on the Buddha-nature, and becoming a Bodhisattva.	·        There has been no historical antagonism between sects; i.e. the 1996 Theravada nun re-ordination took place at a Mahayana ceremony. ·        The core teachings of the Buddha have remained the same, although delivered in a different way to accommodate changing contexts. ·        Bodhi (enlightenment) will produce the same understanding of ultimate reality in both sects.

 

·        One Buddhist response to pluralisation is from Ashoka, an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty. He ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from C.268 to his death (232 BCE). In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga. He converted to Buddhism after he witnessed and ordered over 200,000 deaths. He changed his policies to reflect the dharma – e.g. teaching ahimsa, and converting his palace to vegetarianism – becoming a peaceful ruler.

·        Ashoka created edict pillars (laws inscribed on rocks), distributed throughout his kingdom. In his 12^th Edict, Ashoka suggests that all religions are equally worthy of respect. He hopes for “growth in the essentials of all religions”: in this, he appears to be suggesting that all religions have a common value – to practice right speech. It is harmful to boast that one's religion is better – contact (between religions) is a good thing. Ashoka says that if any criticisms are raised, it should be discussed “in a mild way.” He wanted all religions to learn the doctrines of others, thus highlighting support for a pluralised view of Buddhism.

·        However, this differs from the response of Nichiren Buddhism, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism based on C13th teachings of the Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222-1282) – it is one of the “Kamakura Buddhism” schools. Nichiren Buddhism focuses on the Lotus Sutra doctrine, that all people have an innate Buddha-nature. The Lotus Sutra is the only valid text, containing the “Latter Day of the Law.” Nichiren Buddhism views itself as the only correct tradition, referring to the Lotus Sutra as a “supremely authoritative scripture.” Those religions which do not follow this contribute to the age of “mappo” - the eschatological definition of the “end times”.

·        Therefore, this branch rejects pluralisation because those who don't believe in the authority of the Lotus Sutra are scapegoated as responsible for the evils and sufferings in the world today. We should even consider that Nichiren is very unpopular with other Buddhists, often disparaging rival Buddhist views, warning others that they'd go to hell. Nichiren rebuked the rulers of Japan for allowing rival Buddhist sects to engage in “erroneous thinking.” He was also exiled twice by the government (some of his disciples even executed), refusing to compromise.

·        The Dalai Lama and Freedom: he advocates democracy as a positive system of government. He encourages people to campaign for the freedom of Tibet, allowing Tibetan religious believers to freely practise their religion outside of communist rule. He suggests that, regardless of “whether we are rich or poor, educated or uneducated … each of us is just a human being like everyone else.” He concludes that it is human nature to avoid suffering and seek happiness; thus, if people want to seek happiness through religious expression, they should have the right to.

 

Buddhism and the support of diversity between religions
For	Against
·        The Buddha is not a divine figure; he found the truth of the dharma and shared it with others – he views other religions as discovering other parts of truth, but not all ·        Buddhism is not seen as an absolute doctrine; it is a spiritual journey ·        Buddhism is peaceful and there is no animosity between believers and other religions ·        Buddhism wouldn't have grown popular without multiculturalism, pluralism and globalisation – the existence of the religion in the West today is down to growing acceptance of other viewpoints ·        It is possible to be secular-Buddhist and part of another faith ·        Ashoka's 12th Edict	·        The Buddha's teachings reject some religious ideas outright – many other religions encourage attachment and craving ·        Contradicting doctrines with other religions: i.e. rebirth vs heaven ·        Buddhism may view itself as having the most direct path to enlightenment – more dominant than other religions ·        Pluralisation has damaged Buddhism – Brazier rejects Batchelor's idea that Buddhism is a philosophy, not a religion ·        Nichiren Buddhism teaches that the authority of the Lotus Sutra takes precedence over other religious beliefs – diversity between religions is contributing to mappo
Buddhism and the support of diversity between traditions in Buddhism
For	Against
·        Ashoka's 12th Edict ·        The Buddha taught respect for others and peace – preventing conflict between traditions ·        The Dalai Lama promotes religious freedom and democracy – he campaigns for the freedom of Tibet and for human happiness in today's world ·        London Buddhist center is ecumenical	·        Nichiren Buddhism teaches that the authority of the Lotus Sutra takes precedence over other religious beliefs – diversity between traditions is contributing to mappo ·        Some sects view themselves as greater ·        Contradictory teachings between traditions

 

Buddhism and the challenges of secularisation: Buddhist attitudes to wealth

 

·        Western attitudes to wealth: capitalism - privately owned businesses should allow individuals to amass as much wealth as possible. Materialism is the belief where material possessions are more important than spiritual beliefs. Status is measured by wealth: those who are rich are successful. In the West, successful business people become celebrities. However, it is also important to remember that in the West charity is also widely promoted and philanthropists are respected if they use their wealth for good - examples such as Bono and Bob Geldoff who used their 1980s success to channel their fame and wealth into charitable giving come to mind. 

       Buddhist beliefs: of non-attachment, and practising letting go of material ties in order to freely pursue the goal of nirvana. In countries with strong Buddhist traditions, monks and nuns are venerated for their lives that are lived without attachment to material possessions. The Buddha himself gave up the luxury life of a prince in order to pursue religious truth, reflecting that prior to his renunciation he had lived a life of ignorance, suggesting that great wealth prevented him from understanding the reality of the universe. 

    Monks and nuns therefore live a life of total non-attachment to the world as part of their spiritual goals.  They are not even permitted to handle money. Lay people, on the other hand, are recommended to practice "Right Consumption": Ven. Payutto is a monk who has expounded this idea. Right consumption is a contemporary idea that applies Buddhist principles to the consuming of wealth in society. Focuses on balance of magga ("the middle way"). Right consumption refers to using goods/services for wellbeing; wrong consumption refers to using goods and services for craving.

 

Buddhism and Wealth
Reasons why Buddhism supports/isn't totally against wealth	Reasons why Buddhism seems to reject the Western view of wealth
·         Wealth is not intrinsically evil, and the wealthy will not find it more difficult to attain nirvana. ·        Rich people are in a privileged position to practice generosity. ·        Wealth is not the problem, as long as it is attained honestly and for the benefit of wider society. ·        Mahayana Buddhism encourages charity to the monastic community in particular, in order to accumulate spiritual merit.	·        Excessive wealth and an extravagant way of life can become a source of attachment and create tanha and dukkha (because of fear of loss). ·        There were materialistic sects at the time of the Buddha and he rejected them.

Buddhism and the challenges of secularisation: Modern Buddhist movements

 

·        The Thai Forest Tradition (Peter Harvey) originated in the 1900s; it attempts to uphold a traditional form of Buddhism, closely related to the dharma and lifestyle the Buddha lived. The tradition began with two Dhammayut monks who wandered the Thai countryside out of their desire to practice monasticism according to the standard of classical Buddhism. In the daily life of monastics, followers reach a true understanding of meditative techniques and how to eradicate defilements (“kilesas”) in order to attain awakening (nirvana). The tradition has an anti-textual stance because Forest teachers prefer to apply Buddhist practices on the go, rather than always comparing. They strictly observe the Vinaya. This differs from the traditional Thai sangha: some focus on chanting and ceremonies; some focus on study and intellectual pursuits; or on practice and healing; the difference depends on how well the Vinaya is upheld.

 

·        The Amaravati Movement was established in the 1980s, inspired by the Thai Forest Tradition. The purpose of the movement is to provide a place of practice for monastics, free from all mental suffering. It provides the opportunity for guests and visitors to develop mindfulness, to explore spiritual teachings, and to contribute to the life of the community. In Britain, the Sangha is located at the Eastern end of the Chiltern Hills in South-East England. The structure of the Sangha is that there are usually between 20-30 monks and nuns in residence. The community also has angarikas, who wear white, observe the 8 precepts, and who have made commitments to train for at least a year. In the daily life of the Sangha, the day begins/ends with silent contemplation together, and there is some time for individual practice. They seek to uphold traditional Buddhist values by its reliance on offerings of food from the laity.

 

 -

·        Socially Engaged Buddhism is a movement that offers a contemporary re-interpretation of the dharma to reflect societal issues. It focuses on structural shifts in the economic life, I.T. and geopolitics of the early C20th. The movement originates from Classical Buddhism: both the Theravada Pali Canon and the extracanonical material (I.e. Lotus Sutra) contain teachings about social service to others. The sangha is upheld as an example of social action, and a paragon of equality. In Third Century BCE, Emperor Ashoka was converted to Buddhism and used teachings to create a peaceful social policy (e.g. 12^th Edict).

·        The 5 Moral Precepts are re-interpreted. The precept of taking what is not given is interpreted in terms of economic justice for workers and developing countries. The precept of sexual misconduct concerns the global exploitation of women by male hierarchies, as well as the global traffic in pornography. The precept of abstaining from substances that cloud the mind has led Sivaraksa (a famous Socially Engaged Buddhist) to consider the economic addiction of third world farmers to the production of heroin, coco, tobacco, as well as products that cloud the mind, for "in Buddhism, a clear mind is a precious gem" (1993).

·        An example of Socially Engaged Buddhism is Environmentalism (e.g. protecting trees from deforestation): Macy suggests that, due to teachings regarding Samsara as the place where sentient beings are reborn/suffer, Buddhists have an obligation to care for the environment. Another example is the Anti-Vietnam war movement: Thich Nhat Hanh founded peace-oriented educational and religious institutions during the war, led anti-war protests, published books, and lobbied internationally. In 1963, photographs of a burning monk on a Saigon street appeared in media.

·        Social liberation is a movement seeking equal rights and status for a group; liberationists are those who seek liberation through disestablishment of the structures of society (removing things that are unfair). This is an example of Socially Engaged Buddhism because: they fight against exploitation and oppression; they fight for equality of the sexes and nations; the Anti-Vietnam war is an example of how they seem to liberate people from militant force.

 

Buddhism and the challenges of secularisation: Is Buddhism a religion? Batchelor Vs Brazier

 

Buddhism and the Challenges of Secularisation

·        Society in Britain has become increasingly secular (not associated with faith) – fewer people worship or claim to have beliefs; the Church in Britain/religious institutions have less say over people’s lives. Secularisation has roots in the Enlightenment, as people began to accept scientific rationalism/empiricism rather than religion.

·        One challenge to religion is that moral truths and values have been replaced (for British Buddhists, with science and rationalism). If people feel that they already have answers to ultimate questions, they are less likely to turn to religion. Buddhism relies on belief in the supernatural but science is based in evidence. The view of Humanism suggests people can live good lives without religious belief.

·        Another challenge is that religion has been relegated to the personal sphere. In 1555, it was agreed that the English King could decide on the religion of his whole state; in 1648, it was decreed that if one’s religion was different to the state religion you could practice it in private. In today’s society, British people have a right to decide if they want to belong to a religion.

·        Religion has become consumeristic: people choose to follow it based on personal benefits.

·        A final challenge of secularization on religion is the rise of militant atheism. They are very hostile to religion and see it as something that they must fight against. It is irrational to believe in supernatural religious claims. Richard Dawkins views religious claims as equivalent to a belief in fairies or Santa. They blame religion for wars and for making humanity believe the ridiculous.

·        A new form of Buddhism is Triratna Buddhism. Established in the UK in 1967, it considers contemporary ideals. It is not identified with any particular strand or school of Buddhism; there is an underlying unity to all schools (hence, it is ecumenical). The aims of the movement include: upholding traditional practices such as meditation (samatha), and the “metta bhavana,” translated from Pali as “the cultivation of loving kindness.” It fits with modern society because it considers contemporary ideas including Western philosophy, psychotherapy and art. More than 100 groups worldwide are affiliated with the community. The London Buddhist Centre helps the local community by hosting activities such as drop-in lunchtime meditation centers, and it runs addiction counselling and yoga. Someone who regularly attends community activities is considered to be a “friend” (who can be of any faith), whereas a “mitra” is a “friend” (in Sanskrit) who considers themselves Buddhist. Those who wish to join the order must request this in writing: they therefore show a welcoming attitude to people of other faiths.

·        Another form of Buddhism is Secular Buddhism. The 14^th Dalai Lama says, “Do not try to use what you learn from Buddhism to be a Buddhist, use it to be a better whatever-you-already-are.” Secular Buddhism focuses on discovering personal truths and using Eastern Buddhist practices to help those living in Western societies. Focused mostly on meditation, stress reduction, mindfulness. It is not seen as a religion, but as a philosophy. Noah Rasheta (a Secular Buddhist scholar) says that Buddhist teachings are something we DO; the implication is important because believers should focus on themselves. Thich Nhat Hanh says, “The secret of Buddhism is to remove all ideas, all concepts, in order for the truth to have a chance to penetrate, to reveal itself.”

·        Stephen Batchelor is a supporter of Secular Buddhism – he disrobed from the Sangha in 1985 after becoming disillusioned with the supernatural aspects of Buddhism. He considers Buddhism as a constantly evolving culture of awakening. He rejects karma and rebirth because it is not intrinsic to the Buddha’s teachings. He says in “Buddhism without Beliefs” that the Buddha was not a mystic but a man who challenged us to acknowledge and then overcome anguish. Buddhism has survived for the past 2500 years as it is capable of adapting and reinventing itself. Batchelor argues that the 4NT are not something to have a belief in; instead, they are the 4 tasks which were lost over time as mystical and supernatural aspects became more of a priority. “Dharma practice” suggests a course of action; they are “challenges to act.” We should treat the 4NT as injunctions to act upon “before habitual reactions incapacitate us.”

·        For Batchelor, Buddhism becomes about action, rather than supernatural spiritual beliefs. He advises people to take from Buddhism what works and use that. It is important to see the value in mythic material in Buddhism (such as the story of the Buddha’s upbringing and seeing the Four Sights) without taking these ideas as history. Myths are valuable as they allow people to imaginatively engage with the dharma.

·        Meanwhile, David Brazier is a Cyprus-born Buddhist follower. Despite practicing a mix of Zen and Pureland (Mahayana) Buddhism, he refers to himself only as "a Buddhist." He is the founder of Buddhist spiritual community Amida Shu, which focuses on perfecting a consciousness of spiritual love and truth – Amida is a spiritual presence that binds people together. He rejects secular Buddhism.

·        In his work “The New Buddhism” - a more active, compassionate manifesto - asserts that the Buddha was a radical critic of society, and that his vision of a new social order transcended racial and economic divisions. Brazier takes a new look at the many aspects of Buddhism and re-interprets them in light of the Buddha’s social aims. He clearly states that Buddhism should be – and originally was – about engagement with the world. In “Buddhism is a Religion: You Can Believe It,” Brazier warns that we are in danger of gravely misunderstanding the Buddha when we overlook the metaphysical, religious foundations of his teachings.

 

 

 

 

SUMMARY: Batchelor vs Brazier
Reasons why Batchelor says Buddhism is secular	Reasons why Brazier says Buddhism is a religion
·        Buddhism should be about “belief that” we should do something practical rather than “belief in” spiritual doctrines. ·        The practical thing that we should strive for is the ending of suffering, which is key in Secular Buddhism – this is shown by his view that the 4 Noble Truths were originally meant to be seen as 4 tasks which people must do to overcome suffering in their lives. ·        He removes the supernatural parts of the religion, seeing them as stemming from the context of the time rather than the Buddha himself. ·        Buddhism is also an evolving tradition, so in his view it is completely acceptable to evolve to be non-supernatural in the C21st. ·        His book, “Buddhism without beliefs”, argues that Buddhism is a moral philosophy, not a religion. ·        He still upholds some practices, such as meditation and mindfulness, for their practical benefits, however he does not see this as being connected to supernatural experiences.	·        Buddhism is a religion, and to get rid of spiritual aspects is to remove its “heart”. ·        Brazier views the texts of Buddhism to contain true doctrines that one should have “belief in”. ·        His book “Buddhism is a religion: you can believe it!” counters the view of Secular Buddhism that Buddhism is not a religion. ·        However, he argues that Buddhism should still be focused on practical action – he is an Engaged Buddhist, and believes that it is possible to care for the world and strive to end suffering whilst simultaneously believing in the supernatural aspects of Buddhism. ·        He is a member of the Mahayana tradition.

 

Buddhism and Science: The basics

 

Buddhism and Science

·        Modern Science developed fully in the 16^th to 18^th centuries (AKA the Enlightenment), bringing a systematic approach to science emphasising the view of scientific realism – the idea that we can really understand the world around us. While empiricism suggests that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, rationalism explains that all knowledge starts with the processes of human thought. Modern Science takes an inductive approach – depending on observation and testing.

·        The Buddha's Unanswerable Questions: Gautama Buddha explains that if he did answer these questions, people would've been drawn into the "net" of theories and speculations that restrain people, trapping them in samsara (preventing liberation). The Buddha's attitude suggests that science is not valuable within Buddhism because it is detrimental to one's focus and path of Buddhism - attaining nirvana.

·        These unanswerable questions also don't really correspond with how things really are because, using the example of the world, Buddhist teachings show us that the world doesn't absolutely exist, or exists in time. The world exists dependent on causes and conditions – the three fires. The Buddha saw that the absolute categories of metaphysics do not apply to things as they really are.

·        Buddhism and Quantum Physics: despite using different methods (I.e. meditation vs empiricism), they both arrive at the conclusion that everything is impermanent at a molecular level. With concepts such as anicca (meaning "impermanence") and the Mahayana extension "shunyata" (literally meaning "emptiness"), the parallels with Quantum theory suggests that science must be valuable since it reinforces the validity of Gautama Buddha's teachings.

 

Buddhism and Quantum Physics
Similarities	Differences
·        Things are in a constant state of flux (anicca). ·        Mahayana view of shunyata suggests that everything is made up of "dharmas" that are constantly changing. ·        Both make assumptions about the existence of unobservable particles. ·        The way that people perceive the world is not the same as the true nature of the world.	·        Science believes that things are not inherently empty. ·        Different methods (I.e. meditation vs empiricism). ·        Science is realist and operates within "conventional" reality, whereas Buddhism argues "ultimate" reality is supernatural. ·        Quantum physicists must guess at the behaviour of quarks because they are unobservable.

 

·        The 14^th Dalai Lama shows an interest in neuroscience. He listed a "suspicion of absolutes" and a reliance on causality and empiricism as common traits between Buddhism and Science. He even points out that there has been no historical antagonism between the two aspects. Some even see him as a "bridge" between spirituality and science; they both have the "same greater goal of seeking truth." The Dalai Lama argues that when Buddhist teachings are proven wrong by science, even core teachings must be overturned.

·        Thich Nhat Hanh supports science as he explores the link between conventional and classical science with Buddhism; classical science explores everyday experiences while the conventional truth explores birth and death. Quantum Physics looks at how nature operates on a subatomic level; ultimate truth transcends notions of being and non-being – it helps practitioners liberate themselves from discrimination and attain nirvana.

 

Science has value within Buddhism
Agree	Disagree
·        The Buddha encouraged people (in the Kamala Sutra) to personally investigate the truth to gain more insight; this is like science. ·        The Buddha based the teachings of magga (8FP) on experience. ·        Alan Wallace: "Four themes are common to Buddhism at its best: rationality, empiricism, skepticism, and pragmatism." ·        The Dalai Lama supports science and argues that scientific arguments can overturn Buddhist teachings. ·        Thich Nhat Hanh has drawn parallels between belief in conventional and ultimate reality and classical and quantum science. ·        Anicca/shunyata relates to quantum theory.	·        Science and Buddhism have different aims and worldviews – Buddhism aims for nirvana whereas science has a realist intention. ·        The Buddha refused to answer questions that could be considered "scientific" in nature. ·        Buddhism practices meditation and believes in miracles. ·        Science doesn't accept belief in the supernatural. ·        The Buddha renounced the world and trying to understand realism.

 

·        Concerning miracles, Buddhists are likely to believe in this because of the Buddha's explanation of the supernormal levels of miracles that followers can achieve (revealed in his dialogue with Kevaddha): physical acts (like passing through walls or flying), reading minds, and guiding one's moral development (this helps to remove suffering). An example of a miracle is the case of Pindola – the Buddha was displeased that he used his psychic powers to retrieve a bowl to impress "simple ignorant people."

·        David Hume would criticise Buddhist beliefs in miracles because: it is highly improbable that these miracles happen in the world around us. He rejects the EWT; either someone has lied or has been mistaken. His support from psychology suggests that humans want to believe in miracles due to a love of awe and wonder; to some extent, these Buddhist beliefs are evidence of "ignorant and barbarous nations."

·        Science has challenged belief in karma and rebirth for numerous reasons. Firstly, these concepts offer a different worldview to that of modern science, thus raising an issue of compatibility. Karma also depends on the existence of an afterlife as it suggests that at karmic consequences are experienced over successive lifetimes. The nature of karma can only be experienced through nirvana, not science. And lastly, karma is apparently random, and it isn't verifiable or falsifiable.

·        Buddhist responses to these criticisms include that of David R. Loy: he suggests that one could either reject science, reject karma and rebirth, or possibly conduct a metanarrative (using original texts to find compatibility with modern world). With a metaphorical/psychological perspective of samsara, Epstein states that "each realm becomes not so much a specific place but … the entire wheel [becomes] a representation of neurotic suffering."

 

Buddhist beliefs in karma and rebirth are reasonable
Agree	Disagree
·        The Buddha did teach that karma exists ·        Whilst science has value, the only way to truly understand the nature of things is to gain nirvana – so science cannot have all the answers. ·        Buddhists have a different view of natural laws; there is a spiritual aspect too. ·        Ideas of the three supernormal miracles. ·        A large amount of the narratives of the Buddha's life involves miracles.	·        Karma is difficult to measure; it is random. ·        Science can overturn Buddhist teachings, according to the 14th Dalai Lama. ·        Occam's Razor: is it the simplest explanation? ·        Natural laws are a closed system – not including karma/rebirth.

 

Buddhism and Rationalism
Buddhism is rational	Buddhism is irrational
·        The 4 Noble Truths are understood through the mind. ·        Opens mind to science – 14th Dalai Lama (overturning). ·        Buddhism is based on empirical experiences of Gautama Buddha, leading him to conclude that Magga is best. ·        Buddhism encourages wisdom and insight.	·        Goes against human nature by rejecting emotions, such as craving. ·        Buddhism believes in the supernatural – rebirth etc. ·        The Buddha's unanswerable questions. ·        Various ineffable concepts (including nirvana). ·        Buddhism upholds the belief that true knowledge is acquired only when one attains nirvana – through meditation.

 

Scientific Discoveries: Medicine (e.g. Penicillin)
For		Against
·        Reduces suffering; allows the value of human life to persist. ·        The Buddha accepted help to preserve his life (rice). ·        Penicillin was discovered accidentally.		·        Tanha (craving) is evident because using penicillin may show an attachment to the world. ·        Health is a form of anicca (impermanence).
Scientific Discoveries: Evolution
For		Against
·        Evolution draws parallels with rebecoming (paticcasamuppada). ·        Both science and Buddhism reject the atman (soul). ·        The idea that life develops from a lesser point may fit with the way Buddhism teaches time is cyclical. ·        No divine creator/creation myth.		·        Buddha's unanswerable questions.
Genetic Engineering		A procedure which suggests that it is possible to change the genetic info of an organism, modifying pieces of DNA.
G.E. Crops and Animals (For)	G.E. Crops and Animals (Against)	G.E. Humans (For)	G.E. Humans (Against)
·        Makes animals immune to diseases. ·        Good economic value. ·        Higher nutritional value. ·        Better overall quality and taste.	·        Side effects. ·        Viruses have come from G.E. ·        Raises ethical implications. ·        Environmental damage; e.g. GMO cross-breeding. ·        Minimal economical value. ·        A growth in allergic reactions.	·        Cures diseases. ·        Humans can live longer and healthier lives. ·        "Saviour Siblings" are possible. ·        Unwanted traits can be removed before birth.	·        Ethical issues. ·        Embryos get destroyed in the process. ·        Personhood? ·        Expensive and may not work.

 

·        Does science act as a "stimulus" for Buddhist ethical thinking? Science has been widely accepted today, although it doesn't offer any moral guides. Many scientific discoveries such as WoMD actually cause a huge amount of harm. Buddhism's emphasis on sila (morality) in all aspects, therefore, makes it very different to science. Buddhists may argue that those who adopt an entirely scientific worldview will lack in ethics – Buddhism is necessary to encourage people to find the middle way, offering ethical guidelines. Thus, because Buddhism embraces science, any scientific discoveries/theories will act as a stimulus for Buddhist ethical debates.