Model Essay: Examine Ashoka's view of other faiths with reference to his 12th Edict.

 

1. Examine Ashoka’s view of other faiths with reference to his 12^th Edict. [10 marks - AQA]

Plan:

·        Introduce Ashoka and explain his conversion/the role of edicts in his empire.

·        View of 12^th edict – contact between religions is good and helps people to understand their own dharma.

·        All religions are equally worthy of respect and equal protection.

The Emperor Ashoka ruled almost the entire Indian subcontinent from 268-232BCE, and is regarded as the first Buddhist ruler of India who used his beliefs in his political policies. Ashoka’s conversion is recorded in edicts that he published throughout his kingdom, and he professed to have converted to following the Buddhist dharma after seeing huge amounts of bloodshed and suffering in the Kalinga war, which he waged to occupy territory. It is suggested that after seeing and causing so much suffering, Ashoka had a change of heart and began to seek the end of suffering, leading him to the spiritual dharma (truths or teachings) of Siddhartha Gautama, which were growing increasingly popular within India at this time. This then led Ashoka to radically change his policy and leadership style, embracing ahimsa through vegetarianism in his palaces, and bringing an end to his political control being achieved through violent military conquests. Ashoka made his beliefs and the laws he passed known throughout his kingdom by having huge rock edicts transcribed and erected throughout his kingdom, in order to spread his wishes to those under his command, the 12^th edict deals with his attitudes to other religions.

Ashoka, in the 12^th Edict, suggests that other faiths are worthy of respect and tolerance, and encourages contact between different religions in his kingdom. His reasoning for this is that one’s own understanding of their dharma can be aided by hearing about the truth claims of other religions. He professes that his greatest desire for the “growth in essential of all religions” within his kingdom, suggesting that he wants all faiths to be able to flourish in India. He also suggests that those of different religions can learn from one another, stating plainly that “contact between religions is good.” It is evident that Ashoka has taken some time to consider and compare similarities between different religions, identifying in the edict that many share the same moral practices, for example Ashoka suggests that rejecting false speech is a common moral standard in all religions. It seems that Ashoka is providing common ground to start interfaith dialogues within his kingdom, and that he wanted his followers to discuss with each other and find further similarities between their religions to help them gain a better understanding of both others and themselves.

Ashoka does also seem to recognise that there may be times when religions may not agree, but his edict gives guidance over how to deal with this criticism. Ashoka commands in his Edict that those who want to criticise another’s faith should only do so “mildly”, which could be seen to link to the Buddha’s sila teachings about right speech and right action. This shows that Ashoka did not encourage disparagement or rejection of other faiths, but wanted open discussions between these religions in his kingdom. Overall, it appears that Ashoka is very tolerant of the variety of religions within India at this time, and that he encouraged contact between the religions to help people become wiser in their own faith and matters of other faiths, likely as a way of maintaining peace and harmony within his kingdom.

 

 

 

 

Model Essay: "Buddhists are supportive of freedom of religion in Britain today." Evaluate this statement.

 

“Buddhists are supportive of freedom of religion in Britain today.” Evaluate this statement. [15 marks - AQA]

Religious pluralisation has led to most people in Britain holding the view that all religions are equally valid, and that they should all be respected and valued. There is much debate in Buddhism as to whether religious pluralism is a good thing, leading many to believe that Buddhists may not support pluralisation of religions in society. In this essay I will conclude that Buddhism’s peaceful outlook would not lead the majority of Buddhists to repress freedom of religion in British society, therefore accepting religious pluralism within Britain.

The Buddha, regarded as the founder and first proponent of the dharma, appears to offer many teachings that suggest that Buddhists would support the freedom of religious expression in society. For example, his teachings on ahimsa (peace) and karuna (compassion) suggest that Buddhists oppose conflict, and moral precepts such as right speech and right action show that Buddhists are unlikely to condemn those who follow other religions. Historically, there has been little conflict between Buddhist traditions, despite them upholding different goals (such as the Theravada arhat path and the Mahayana bodhisattva path). Therefore, Buddhists may support the freedom of religious expression out of a desire for peace and morality (sila).

However, this view was opposed in the 13^th Century by Japanese Buddhist Nichiren. Nichiren vehemently rejected other forms of Buddhism and other religions alike, suggesting that they were contributing to the “age of mappo” (the end times), leading to the perversion of the Buddha dharma and natural disasters such as earthquakes. He argued that the only right form of Buddhism is Nichiren Buddhism, a form of Mahayana Buddhism that sees the Lotus Sutra as the only authoritative text – leading him to describe it as the Latter Day of the Law. Nichiren’s struggles against the Japanese ruling classes and his rejection of other forms of Buddhism show that he would not support the freedom of religious expression in society today, further evidenced through the fact that he believed that those who followed texts other than the Lotus Sutra would go to hell. In Nichiren’s eyes, the only religion that should be allowed in society was his own tradition.

Prior to the work of Nichiren, Ashoka the Great, an Emperor who died in 232BCE, was well known for his conversion to Buddhism and transformation of the laws of his kingdom to reflect the dharma. Ashoka’s edicts show a vastly different view of other religions – his 12^th Edict promoted contact between different religions, encouraging all people not to condemn other religions, and if criticism was necessary, to only do this “mildly”. Ashoka argued that all religions had the common root of right speech, and suggested that it could actually harm one’s religion to compare it to others. Instead, he encouraged people to learn the teachings of other religions to better themselves. It is therefore obvious that Ashoka supported people freely expressing their beliefs, and this can also be applied to the context of British society today.

Furthermore, the 14^th Dalai Lama, an authority for many of the world’s Mahayana Buddhists, is well-known for his advocating of religious freedom, particularly in relation to Tibet. He sees all beings as being equal in their right to pursue happiness and end suffering, and has stressed in his work the equality of all people – rich and poor, educated and uneducated, and religious and non-religious. Whilst Buddhists may view other religions as only having a partial grasp of the dharma, it is evident that Buddhists see value in all beings having their own views. Therefore, Buddhists appear to support the pluralisation of religion and the freedom of religious expression in today’s society.

In conclusion, I believe that Buddhists believe that peace and tolerance are so important that they generally support the freedom of religious expression in today’s society. This is evidenced through Ashoka’s belief that other religions can help people have a greater understanding of the Buddha’s dharma, and the Dalai Lama’s contentions that all beings should be equally allowed to pursue happiness, regardless of their religious beliefs. However, it is important to remember that this is not a unified view in Buddhism, and would be rejected by Nichiren Buddhists who uphold only their own tradition.

Buddhism, Migration and Pluralism: The Basics

 

Buddhism, Migration & Pluralisation

·        Multiculturalism is where societies are made up of many different cultures, which include different nationalities, beliefs, values and social customs. They should be equally respected and seen as valuable. Religious pluralism is just like this but refers to the co-existence of various religions. Migration is the idea of people moving from one country to the next. A secular state is a country where the government, legislature and society are not controlled by or dependent on the teachings of a religion.

·        Religious tolerance has two meanings: one definition is that all religions should be accepted as equally valid and true, meanwhile the other definition suggests that, though one might not agree with someone else's religious beliefs, one must avoid oppressing or discriminating the other person's religious beliefs.

·        Laws that support the freedom of religion include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18 and the Equality Act 2010. Article 18 explicitly states that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (this is part of European Law); this means that Buddhists are free to practice their religion, either publicly (in community with others) or privately. The Equality Act 2010 states that it is against the law to prohibit or restrict the practice of religion in Britain. The law protects people in the workplace; anti-religion is a hate crime. Thus, Buddhists are protected because discrimination against religious groups is a criminal act.

·        Migration has contributed to the creation of pluralised Britain through several instances, primarily in the second half of the C20th. Following WW2, Eastern Europeans migrated. As a result of labour shortages in Britain, the 1950s government encouraged immigration from Caribbean communities and Hong Kong. The Indian Independence of 1947 peaked in 1972 when Idi Amin expelled Indians and Pakistanis from Uganda. Buddhist communities also migrated during the Chinese invasion of Tibet (1950): this eventually led to the exodus of Tibetans with the Dalai Lama in 1959. This brought immigration to the West.

·        Migration can also explain the creation of Buddhist communities in Britain: many Buddhists settled in Western communities. Manchester's Chinatown began in C20th as a home for laundry workers who emigrated from China after the invasion of Tibet.

·        Other reasons why Buddhist communities have developed in Britain: the academic interest of the C19th whereby Buddhist scriptures began to be translated to English and circulated amongst academics/the upper classes; in 1879, Sir Edwin Arnold published “The Light of Asia”, a poem about the Buddha's life which sparked interest in Buddhism; in 1898, Allan Bennet travelled to Sri Lanka to be ordained as the first British Theravada Monk, and returned to England to practice his religion; and in 1907, the Buddhist society of Great Britain & Ireland was formed, becoming the London Buddhist society in 1924 – it is a platform for all to come together.

·        There is diversity of Buddhist traditions in Britain. The Amaravati Buddhist Monastery, (Herts) was founded in 1979 by Ajahn Sumedho, an American-born Theravada monk of the Thai Forest Tradition. Housing both monks and nuns, it has a retreat center for laypeople, a library, and is open to visitors for occasional talks. The Jamyang Buddhist Centre (London) is a Tibetan organisation of the Gelupga tradition, under the direction of Geshe Tashi Tsering. Courses of study and practice are taught at all levels. Lastly, the Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey (Northumberland) is a training monastery of the Japanese Soto Zen tradition, founded in 1972 by an Englishwoman, the late Rev. Jiyu-Kennett, and now under the direction of Rev. Daishin Morgan.

·        These three Buddhist centers show that there is diversity within British Buddhism because these centers are ecumenical and generally inclusive. Multiculturalism may be helpful to the development of Buddhism in Britain because of the role of popularity, leading to a pluralised society where there are more followers and a greater understanding of other traditions.

 

Buddhism is a collection of traditions with little in common
For	Against
·        They both have varied views - Theravada is a lineage whilst Mahayana is a movement. ·        The key doctrinal text of Theravadas is the Pali Canon, written in Pali. Meanwhile, Mahayanas accept sutras; these texts were written in Sanskrit. ·        Theravadas solely worship the Buddha and focuses on the arhat goal, whereas Mahayanas focus on the Buddha-nature, and becoming a Bodhisattva.	·        There has been no historical antagonism between sects; i.e. the 1996 Theravada nun re-ordination took place at a Mahayana ceremony. ·        The core teachings of the Buddha have remained the same, although delivered in a different way to accommodate changing contexts. ·        Bodhi (enlightenment) will produce the same understanding of ultimate reality in both sects.

 

·        One Buddhist response to pluralisation is from Ashoka, an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty. He ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from C.268 to his death (232 BCE). In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga. He converted to Buddhism after he witnessed and ordered over 200,000 deaths. He changed his policies to reflect the dharma – e.g. teaching ahimsa, and converting his palace to vegetarianism – becoming a peaceful ruler.

·        Ashoka created edict pillars (laws inscribed on rocks), distributed throughout his kingdom. In his 12^th Edict, Ashoka suggests that all religions are equally worthy of respect. He hopes for “growth in the essentials of all religions”: in this, he appears to be suggesting that all religions have a common value – to practice right speech. It is harmful to boast that one's religion is better – contact (between religions) is a good thing. Ashoka says that if any criticisms are raised, it should be discussed “in a mild way.” He wanted all religions to learn the doctrines of others, thus highlighting support for a pluralised view of Buddhism.

·        However, this differs from the response of Nichiren Buddhism, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism based on C13th teachings of the Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222-1282) – it is one of the “Kamakura Buddhism” schools. Nichiren Buddhism focuses on the Lotus Sutra doctrine, that all people have an innate Buddha-nature. The Lotus Sutra is the only valid text, containing the “Latter Day of the Law.” Nichiren Buddhism views itself as the only correct tradition, referring to the Lotus Sutra as a “supremely authoritative scripture.” Those religions which do not follow this contribute to the age of “mappo” - the eschatological definition of the “end times”.

·        Therefore, this branch rejects pluralisation because those who don't believe in the authority of the Lotus Sutra are scapegoated as responsible for the evils and sufferings in the world today. We should even consider that Nichiren is very unpopular with other Buddhists, often disparaging rival Buddhist views, warning others that they'd go to hell. Nichiren rebuked the rulers of Japan for allowing rival Buddhist sects to engage in “erroneous thinking.” He was also exiled twice by the government (some of his disciples even executed), refusing to compromise.

·        The Dalai Lama and Freedom: he advocates democracy as a positive system of government. He encourages people to campaign for the freedom of Tibet, allowing Tibetan religious believers to freely practise their religion outside of communist rule. He suggests that, regardless of “whether we are rich or poor, educated or uneducated … each of us is just a human being like everyone else.” He concludes that it is human nature to avoid suffering and seek happiness; thus, if people want to seek happiness through religious expression, they should have the right to.

 

Buddhism and the support of diversity between religions
For	Against
·        The Buddha is not a divine figure; he found the truth of the dharma and shared it with others – he views other religions as discovering other parts of truth, but not all ·        Buddhism is not seen as an absolute doctrine; it is a spiritual journey ·        Buddhism is peaceful and there is no animosity between believers and other religions ·        Buddhism wouldn't have grown popular without multiculturalism, pluralism and globalisation – the existence of the religion in the West today is down to growing acceptance of other viewpoints ·        It is possible to be secular-Buddhist and part of another faith ·        Ashoka's 12th Edict	·        The Buddha's teachings reject some religious ideas outright – many other religions encourage attachment and craving ·        Contradicting doctrines with other religions: i.e. rebirth vs heaven ·        Buddhism may view itself as having the most direct path to enlightenment – more dominant than other religions ·        Pluralisation has damaged Buddhism – Brazier rejects Batchelor's idea that Buddhism is a philosophy, not a religion ·        Nichiren Buddhism teaches that the authority of the Lotus Sutra takes precedence over other religious beliefs – diversity between religions is contributing to mappo
Buddhism and the support of diversity between traditions in Buddhism
For	Against
·        Ashoka's 12th Edict ·        The Buddha taught respect for others and peace – preventing conflict between traditions ·        The Dalai Lama promotes religious freedom and democracy – he campaigns for the freedom of Tibet and for human happiness in today's world ·        London Buddhist center is ecumenical	·        Nichiren Buddhism teaches that the authority of the Lotus Sutra takes precedence over other religious beliefs – diversity between traditions is contributing to mappo ·        Some sects view themselves as greater ·        Contradictory teachings between traditions